Senin, 17 September 2012

Good Habits

Good Habits
Build a Good Foundation for Life
Good personal and study habits are the foundation for lifelong achievement. Now is the time to teach your child the self-discipline and other skills that help children be more effective and feel good about themselves, their learning and other areas of their lives. Here are some ideas and resources that can help your child learn these important tools.
Self-Management: Using personal discipline and responsibility to become a successful student and good citizen.
  • Responsibility. Helping your child earn independence by meeting obligations, being trustworthy and respecting himself or herself - and others.
  • Persistence. Sticking to the job until it is done. Here's how your child can learn to go the extra mile.
  • Punctuality. Showing responsibility - and not missing out - by being on time for classes and appointments.
  • Effort. Your student doesn't have to be a genius to get ahead. Success often goes to the people who know how to get the job done and are willing to do what it takes.
  • Focus. In this information age, your child may have to juggle many tasks at once - and be able to give each one full attention. Here are ways you can help.

Study Skills: Using today's learning tools, asking useful questions and setting aside time to learn.
Study Skills
Practical Study Tips
Good grades increase opportunities for your child. They open doors to college and to careers. You can help your child get better grades by improving study skills.
Three Ways to Build Study Skills :


  • Work on big goals first. Help your child to create positive, precise and realistic goals. Write them down. Goals should be not too difficult but not too easy.
  • Break down the big goal into manageable parts. Have your child write down the smaller steps or mini-goals needed to reach the larger goal. Set up deadlines and discuss your child's progress often.
  • Create a plan to tackle the mini-goals. Explain the value of practice and training in meeting goals. Work with your child to schedule time for study rather than cramming for tests or assignment deadlines. Help your student form a study group as well as set aside time for uninterrupted time for homework.
Good organization sharpens your student's study skills. Different colored file folders and assignments and notes filed in a class-specific notebook are signs of organization.
  • The Notebook. Notebooks make learning materials easy to find. Folders and binders with dividers are great to organize notes, assignments and test results. Encourage your student to have separate, labeled notebooks for each class.
  • Assignments. Suggest writing down assignments for all classes in one designated place. Include due dates and important information for each one. Encourage your student to ask the teacher to explain unclear assignments and keep records of the grades received. Notice the types of assignments that need more work and make sure your student asks teachers for help.
Real learning takes time and attention. Reinforce a consistent approach to learning by creating a specific place and routine time for studying. Don't forget to allow for breaks!
  • Set a Place. Choose a place that is quiet with few distractions and that has pens, pencils, paper, a dictionary and a ruler at hand. Study space should be well lighted and have music if it helps your child concentrate.
  • Set a Time. Designate study time when your child is alert, fresh and relaxed and, ideally, at the same time daily. Don't forget short breaks to refresh the mind and schedule the first one before studying begins. During the break, suggest a walk outdoors or deep breathing exercises. Research studies show that physical well-being promotes mental well-being and renewed energy.




Time Management: Organizing the work, setting priorities and making choices.
Time Management
Help Your Student Manage Time
Managing time is one of the most important and useful skills you can help your child learn. Dividing the semester, week and day into manageable sections helps your student track assignments, deadlines and activities.
Develop a Time Schedule
A time schedule helps your student worry less about deadlines and see the big picture in terms of goals, commitments and time.

Make a master schedule with your child for the semester
1.     List the following items:
o    all required school activities
o    after-school activities
o    study times
o    family obligations
o    blank spaces for activities not yet scheduled
2.     Write down deadlines for major projects on a blank calendar.
3.     Review each project to estimate how long it will take to complete. Add a bit more time, then enter project start dates on the calendar.
Make a weekly schedule.
1.     Make a short list of major events, activities and assignments each week. Refer to the master schedule.
2.     Note important deadlines.
Make a daily schedule.
1.     Suggest and review a "to do" list every day.
2.     Check off items as they are completed.
3.     Note any tasks that were not completed and help your student find ways to finish them.
Review the schedule.
After a few weeks, get feedback from your student on how well the schedule is working. Ask the following questions:
1.     Are you getting your schoolwork finished on time?
2.     Are you getting more done?
3.     Do you feel you are in control of your time?
4.     Do you have enough time to socialize and relax?
If the answers are "yes", then the schedule is helping your student to manage time. If there are problems, review the schedule and see how it can be improved.



Description:

Thoughts Lead to Actions
Actions Lead to Habits
Habits Lead to Character
Character Leads to a way of life


The Good Habits For Kids Program gives you the knowledge to put thoughts into your children's minds. When your children realize the benefits of Good Actions they start actually doing these actions. Once your children start routinely doing these good actions they develop habits. After these habits have become firm in your children they develop character. When character has developed, the children will have a way of life that only their parents could have given them.

This simple program is easy to understand, implement, and generates immediate results. Promotes and develops lifetime skills for better kids, better adults, and better parents.

Makes Children Accountable.
This program makes children accountable for their time, duties and responsibilities, encouraging good behavior, while modifying bad or unwanted behavior. Rewards children for their effort and motivates children to do better. Most parents are pleasantly surprised with their children's ability to think of new ways on their own to succeed on the program.

 

Extremley Flexible
This program is extremely flexible and can be tailored to each child's age, ability, maturity and specific behaviors targeted to modify. As good behaviors are modified and reinforced they become habits, These habits form a foundation for additional good behaviors to be modified into good habits for a lifetime.

 

Immediate Measurable Results
The power of this program is to provide immediate measurable results, rewarding good behaviors and forming lifelong habits, promoting Good habits for kids, who become greater adults and ultimately even better parents of their kids.

 

Puts you in Control
As human beings, children naturally want to control their lives and the way they do this when they live at home is to control their parents. This program puts the parents in control of the kids and the kids in control of themselves, leading to adults who can control their own lives.

 

Works on a Daily Basis
This program uses all of the principles and elements of your parenting methods and combines them into one system that is flexible and works on a daily basis for any activity anywhere. Works with any size family in any circumstance.
Most parents basic goals in raising children aged 3-14 are simple:

·         Motivated, positive attitude and respect.

·         Initiative, right choices

·         Responsible

·         Honest and trustworthy

·         Good teamwork , social skills and manners

 

Specifically, many parents struggle daily with children's personal responsibilities such as:

·         brushing teeth

·         picking up after themselves

·         making their beds

·         practicing music

·         homework

·         etc


 

Daily household duties like:

·         Laundry

·         Trash

·         Preparing meals

·         Feeding pets

·         Vacuuming house

·         Cleaning

·         etc.


To encourage good behaviors or discourage bad behaviors most parents have tried:

·         Yelling

·         Nagging

·         Bribery

·         Paddling

·         Time-out

·         Grounding

·         Denial of privileges


And there are many others but all of them either leave you exhausted, feeling angry, guilty and frustrated. They are hard to maintain and remain consistent no matter how hard you try. Children see the inconsistencies of the parents but do not connect it to their behavior.

It Works!
Why does this program work while others only work a little while is because children usually figure out a way around your system. With this system it is easier and less time consuming than other systems because there isn't a way around it.

 

You Won't want to quit
Since the administration of this program is exclusively controlled by the parent, it is critical that the parent remain committed to the program. Your child knows you very well, and a popular technique to getting things back to normal is for you to abandon the program. We are confident that you will be so encouraged by the results that you will not want to quit.

·         The number #1 problem Orthodontists encounter is motivating children to wear headgear, rubber bands and brush aggressively.

·         The #1 problem for music teachers is encouraging practice for better performance.

 

The Good habits for Kids program administered by a parent will improve these areas saving money, time, and better results, the parent ensures success with the program.

 

Save Time
More family fun time and activities. Parents save an enormous amount of time not doing what children should be doing for themselves. Arguing or whining? Big time wasters and pretty much a thing of the past when the techniques of this program are applied.


Reinforce Good Habits

The Good Habits for Kids program was developed to allow families to communicate the necessity of chores and duties and to reinforce good habits in a consistent non-violent, non threatening way.

·         Has real rewards and consequences.

·         Promotes independent thinking, personal responsibility and personal growth.

·         Generates more free time for families by eliminating redundant ineffective training, and shifts the burden of household chores to the people creating most of them.

·         It's a game that is fun to administer, has measurable results, is a consistent and ongoing program and gives kids and parents what they want.

·         It doesn't conflict with the desire to allow children freedom and responsibility, and allow choices as children grow.


Everyone Wins!
When kids take on more personal responsibility and Parents have more time to devote to the more rewarding aspects of parenting. Parents are happier without an unpleasant atmosphere of nagging, griping and frustration.


Five Good Habits to Instill In Your Children
A Suze Orman exclusive
Let’s talk about how you can raise confident and happy children who possess a healthy approach to money.
1. ATM ABCs…
If you could get inside the heads of toddlers or young children today, their original understanding of money might be as the prize in a kind of game involving ATMs. Whenever you find a machine, you put your magic card in the slot, punch in a few numbers and voila! money pops out. Cool!
Quite innocently, parents are totally messing with their kids by exposing them to this “game” without providing any context. It seems to me that when a child reaches four or five years old you have to start explaining how the game really works. A full-blown lesson on the American banking system isn’t necessary, just a few brief, clear messages explaining why you’re able to make ATMs “give” you money on command. Likewise, the next time your child asks why you have to go to work, I want you to respond along these lines: “I am fortunate because I get to go do interesting work and earn money, so we will be able to buy things that we need.” That answer not only begins to introduce the idea that money is earned, not a part of a game, but it also puts money in a positive light. It drives me crazy when I hear parents tell their kids: “I hate having to go to work instead of staying home with you, but I have to go make money.” With that answer you have managed to teach your kids to hate work and to hate money. Not what you really intended, right?

2. Shop Talk
A great many of you need to instill some mall discipline in your kids. The key to this is to set parameters for each trip, organized around a pre-determined reason or objective for the excursion. Taking children to the mall without this kind of planned focus is a ticket for disastrous impulse buying. And just think what message that sends to your child. Whenever they want something all they have to do is go to the mall and Mom or Dad will whip out the credit card. How do you expect your child to ever learn the value of money when you spend it like that?
One of the best ways to teach moderation and the difference between wanting and needing is to sit down with your child before you go clothes shopping for the new school year. Before you ever set foot in the mall, have a clear game plan: we are looking for three sweaters, four shirts, and four pairs of pants. Period. And if your kid has a few favorite stores, I suggest you insist they case each store before any purchase is made. That way, you’ll avoid buying everything you need at the first store and then having your kid walk into the next store and claim they will “just die” if they can’t also have this or that item. The idea is for them to take a look at everything that’s available and then make choices based on the parameters you’ve set with them.
In today’s brave new world, of course, you also need to come up with an online shopping strategy. Because of the incredible convenience, I see way too many parents buying for their kids via their PC or Mac without thinking. You’re sitting at dinner and your son mentions a new video game he wants. Then an hour later, when you are at your computer finishing up on some work, he appears at your elbow and suggests you just buy it online. So you do.
Take a look at your credit card statement and add up how many purchases are those “easy” online transactions made simply because your child asked at an opportune moment. Scary, huh? It’s time to set some limits. As I explain below, gifts are to be reserved for truly special occasions. Anything beyond those special occasions needs to be financed by your child. Part-time jobs (for teens) are crucial money management lessons for kids.
3. Bill of Rights
In addition to setting the right spending examples with your kids, you also need to teach them the mechanics of managing money. Let them begin to learn by “helping out” when you pay your bills. When a child is a pre-teen or young teen, let him or her even write out a few bill checks for you to sign (or handle the clicks on your online bill-pay). Again, there doesn’t need to be a lecture here, nor is your goal to make your child feel the weight of all your financial responsibilities. But it’s a good first step in showing them what it takes to live. Trust me, a child who receives $5 or $10 for allowance is going to get quite an eye-opener when they see that the gas & electric bill was $300 during the winter months, that the cable is another $40 or so every month, and that your cell phone (one of life’s most basic necessities in their worldview) costs $50 a month.
Speaking of cell phones, when you decide to give your child one, don’t pass up the opportunity for a great financial lesson. Even if you are simply adding a child to an existing plan, let them know what their “share” of the bill is. I would recommend that you increase their chores and responsibilities around the house to offset the cost of their phone. Again, you are not denying them; you are taking advantage of a natural way to teach them that nothing is free. And any excess minutes they run up need to come out of their own allowance, or be worked off with extra jobs around the house.
4. Gifts Are Not a Given
I don’t care how wealthy you may be, or how much joy you get showering your kids with toys and gifts. You have got to show some restraint. It’s good for them, and for you too.
Gifts should be for an occasion. A birthday. A holiday. An important milestone. If you simply buy everything your children wants, you are not only taking away the “specialness” of gifts, you are setting up your kid to be a financial wreck. The children who get everything they want at 12 become the 22-year-olds with huge credit card balances they can’t pay—simply because they grew up not understanding moderation and living within one’s means.
Don’t feel guilty about scaling back the spending. It’s not about saying, “No, you can’t have that pair of jeans.” It’s all about saying, “Why don’t you put them on your list for Christmas, or for your birthday?” And hey, if they absolutely must have something N-O-W, please let them “earn” it with a job or project around the house.
5. Give’em Credit
You must educate your kids about how credit cards work before they go to college. That way they won’t fall prey to all the credit card offers they will be assaulted with during freshman orientation. I can’t tell you how many thousands of young adults tell me their money problems began in school: they fell for the card offers and started charging away without understanding the ramifications of what they were doing.
That’s where you come in. Make them card savvy when they are young and you will literally save them thousands of dollars in interest payments that they’ll know how to avoid.
You have a few options in how to give your kid credit. If you have a good FICO score of at least 720, I recommend that while you child is young you simply add their name to all of your credit cards as an authorized user. Obviously you are not to give them your credit cards, or in most cases even let them know you have done this. But by doing so, your good FICO score will become theirs as well. Then when your child hits 13 or so, I think it is time to give them a debit card tied to an account you set up for them. Each month you deposit a set sum in the account and discuss with your child what expenses are to be covered under it. And because they can only charge up to the amount in the account, they are going to learn a lot about money management the first time they try to use the card at the mall and it is turned down. (A crucial tip, though: make sure the account at the bank is set up so they will not be covered by a bank overdraft policy; you want them to simply be turned down if they try to charge beyond their balance.)
I would also encourage you to encourage them to stick with a debit card while in college. Yes, I know this doesn’t help them build a FICO score, but if they are on your cards as an authorized user, they’re already doing that. And for heaven’s sake please do everything you can to steer your kid away from jumping at the credit card offers they will be enticed with during college. As I said, thousands of young adults have told me this was how their financial life took a really bad turn right out of the gate. They just charged away in school, and then when they hit the real world they had a ton of debt and a lousy FICO score. It’s better if they wait until they are out of school to get their own card. With an income and the solid FICO score they’ve accrued from your credit cards, they should be able to get a good deal then—and be mature enough to use it wisely.
Once again though, remember that your child’s financial future largely depends on your financial reality today. You can’t teach them what they need to know if you yourself are financially irresponsible. I know you may be 20 or 30 or 40 years older than your children, but that doesn’t mean you are any more mature than they are if you have no respect for money. If that’s the case, you need to grow up fast before you ruin your chances of raising a financially secure child. 

Sabtu, 15 September 2012

Piaget dan Murid-muridnya


Siegler and Case
Siegler dan Case merupakan murid dari Piaget, dia menentang pernyataan dari Piaget bahwa pekembangan anak berdasarkan atas tingkatan umur. Piaget juga menyatakan memang perubahan-perubahan kuantitatif pada setiap tahapan umur tertentu tergantung asimilisasi dan akomodasi. Asimilasi berarti bertambahnya pengetahuan seseorang, bertambah tinggi, bertambah gemuk, dsb, yang terintegrasi. Pengertian akomodasi menunjuk pada sesuatu yang baru dari sifatnya umum kepada yang khusus menyebabkan perubahan itu terjadi. Terjadinya perubahan yang baru, itulah inti dari akomodasi.
Semakin kita berumur semakin maju kita memonitor apa yang kita ingat, hal ini memicu terjadinya pemikiran diatas pemikiran atau berfikir terhadap apa kita pikirkan yang disebut meta-cognition, yamg menjadikan hal-hal yang tadinya tidak kita mengerti, yang tadinya tidak terasimila
sikan menjadi sesuatu yang baru (terakomodasikan).
Meta-cognition terjadi pada taraf High of thinking. Ini yang dibawakan oleh Case sebagai tokoh yang sangat mengagumi Piaget, meskipun ia membuat kritik terhadap apa yang dikatakan oleh Piaget. Keduanya sama-sama konstruktivisme, tetapi Case menjelaskan bagaimana proses informasi itu masuk dalam proses berfikir kita (Human Information Processing). Siegler menambah apa yang dikatakan oleh Case, perubahan kognitif terjadi karena kita makin berumur, makin banyak belajar, makin memperoleh kemampuan untuk meningkatkan prosedur dan struktur berfikir, yang tadinya tidak seberapa. Waktu kita muda pada saat kita belum berkembang. Makin kita berumur, dan berkembang proses berfikir itu makin diperbaiki. Segala kesenjangan makin hilang itulah yang disebut dengan Human Information Processing.

Vigotsky
Sebelum meninggal di umur 33 tahun, dia menghasilkan suatu psikologi yang mendobrak ilmu psikologi itu sendiri, artinya mengarah bahwa apa yang menjadi perilaku manusia adalah proses menyesuaikan diri dengan apa yang menjadi perilaku masyarakat. Maksudnya perilaku itu akan disesuaikan dengan apa yang seharusnya dimiliki manusia. Hal tersebut mengarah pada faktor lingkungan. Mengatakan bahwa perkembangan kognisi adalah selain transformasi proses dasar biologis (seperti halnya terjadi pada binatang), ada juga teori Fungsi Psikologi Kognisi Tinggi yang mencakup rentangan kemampuan, persepsi, perhatian, memori yang tumbuh dalam konsep sosial dan pendidikan, ini tidak dimiliki oleh binatang.
Fungsi psikologi berfikir tinggi, tumbuh kembang karena berkat faktor lingkungan. Tanpa lingkungan tidak terjadilah apa yang menjadi Psikologi kognisi tinggi, hanya seperti pada binatang menjadi proses biologis saja. Pada manusia bukan hanya terjadi perkembangan dalam arti proses biologis saja (gemuk, tinggi, panjang, dsb); ada juga persepsi, ada juga perhatian, ada juga memori tapi datangnya harus ada transformasi dan kontek sosial dan pendidikan dan ini terjadi melalui hukum-hukum sosial, melalui bahasa, melalui kebudayaan tertentu (konstruksi sosial).

PIAGET VS VIGOTSKY
Berbeda dari Piaget yang semata-mata menyatakan dan menekankan bahwa semua itu terjadi dari dalam, pertumbuhan biologis dari dalam meskipun lingkungan juga sedikit mempengaruhi. Perbedaan antara Piaget dan Vigotsky adalah Piaget, tunggu kematangan dan kesiapan dalam memberikan berbagai pengaruh hidup seseorang.
Piaget juga mengatakan pokoknya harus cocok (Match) antara apa yang menjadi pengaruh dari luar dan dari dalam. Pada dasarnya teori piaget sangat terkait dengan kecocokan (matching) antara apa yang diberikan oleh lingkungan dan apa yang menjadi kesiapan dan kematangan dari dalam. Berbeda dengan pendapat Vigotsky, bukan harus cocok, melainkan berilah sesuatu diatas perkembangan itu (Plus One Matching). Prinsip dari Plus One Matching dikaitkan dengan apa yang disebut daerah-daerah dalam perkembangan yang rendah, yang sangat sensitif untuk di aktualisasikan, suatu jarak antara tingkat perkembangan seseorang, dalam arti tingkat perkembangan yang belum terbentuk dengan apa yang sudah teraktualisasikan. Jadi ibaratnya kalau ada daerah hitam dan putih, yang hitam adalah potensi yang belum teraktualisasikan yang belum berubah menjadi suatu kemampuan. Yang putih adalah potensi yang sudah terktualisasikan. Jarak antara hitam dan putih adalah daerah yang disebut dengan Zone Proximal Development (ZPD). Daerah dari perkembangan yang kurang lebih akan terjadi kemampuan, daerah yang sangat sensitif untuk dipengaruhi. ZPD yang terkenal di seluruh dunia adalah bukan pada bahwa apa yang hitam tapi oleh seorang dalam kaitannya dirinya adalah hasil dari konstruksi belajar. Disisi lain Piaget mengatakan pada umur tertentu manusia sudah dipatokkan. Hal ini dibantah oleh Vigotsky, tidak perlu menunggu umur yang dipatokkan, sebab daerah yang diharapkan kira-kira (proximal) bisa memberikan pengaruh yang cukup, bisa berfikir pada taraf-taraf insight, bisa terjadi pembelajaran, bisa terjadi sesuatu yang tadi tidak match menjadi match.
Sikap perkembangan daerah yang potensial yang disebut ZPD, perkembangan yang potensial untuk menjadi suatu kemampuan yang konkrit. Beda seperti yang dikatakan oleh John Locke (Empirisisme). Tabularasa, ibarat kertas putih, kemudian ditulisi apa yang menjadi perilaku manusia. Bukan ini salah, kita harus cocokan sesuai tingkat perkembangan dan pa yang dimiliki sebagai kemampuan yang dimiliki seseorang itu (Piaget). Bukan kata Vigotsky bukan harus cocok begini dalam memberikan sesuatu dari aspek. Itu yang disebut daerah yang kira-kira (proximal) memiliki perkembangan potensial untuk diaktualisasikan untuk menjadi kemampuan itu muncul. Untuk itu harus ada persyaratan tertentu agar menjadikan otak kita bergerak atau befikir mampu belajar, memabaca, menulis dan sebagainya.
ZPD adalah jarak antara tingkat perkembangan aktual yang terjadi dengan apa yang masih potensial. Berubah seraya perkembangan menjadi aktual, nyata, realitas, kemampuan, sifat, menjadi sikap, itu perkembangan manusia yang potensial, yang akan menjadi aktual. Disini harus dibantu, dirangsang, bagaimana cara mengelola, harus ada Asisted performance (Adult Guidance/kerjasama peers). Artinya harus ada Scaffolded Instruction tingkatan yang disesuaikan (perancah). Pembelajaran yang diberikan oleh seorang Adult Guidance harus disesuaikan dengan kecepatan belajar seseorang, kemampuan belajar seseorang. Melalui tiga prinsip: 1. Bermakna (Meaningfull); 2. Sesuai dengan kontek sosial; 3. Peluang untuk berubah. Ini merupakan tiga prinsip yang saling mencocokan Resiprocate Teaching Approach dimana anak-anak tidak menunggu kematangan, kesiapan tetapi ditantang untuk lebih maju, lebih berkembang lagi (Vigotsky).
Jadi Vigotsky menjadikan anak tertantang (Child Challange), melakukan aktivitas diatas tingkat perkembangan. Tetapi persaratannya jangan sampai Socio Colt Perspective terabaikan (lingkungan sosial, kebudayaan), dimana ada kerjasama serta interaksi diantara teman sebaya.

Mahzab Psikologi (Lama)


  1. Behaviorisme
Mazhab behaviourisme adalah mazhab yang mengedepankan perilaku nyata (process of external control). Mazhab ini juga menekankan pada pragmatisme. Maksudnya, sesuatu itu dianggap sebagai suatu kebenaran bila sesuatu itu memiliki nilai manfaat (the truth is in the making).
Beberapa tokoh yang termasuk dalam mazhab ini diantaranya adalah:
a.       John B. Watson
b.       Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
Pavlov terkenal dengan teori Conditioning Clasic. Eksperimennya terhadap anjing mengindikasikan bahwa lingkungan dapat mengkondisikan perilaku sebagaimana yang diharapkan oleh lingkungan. Refleks atau respon keluar sesuai kondisi yang dipersyaratkan.
c.        Skinner
Menurut Skinner, bukan stimulus yang menghasilkan respon, tetapi konsekuensi (akibat) dari perbuatan yang dilakukan oleh individulah yang menghasilkan respon, baik yang akan diulang kembali (reinforcement positif) maupun tidak (reinforcement  negatif).
d.       Bandura
Menurut Bandura, bukan konsekuensi (akibat dari perbuatan) yang menyebabkan pengulangan perilaku (reinforcement), tetapi adanya kemauan (internal consequence) dari dalam diri individu. Teori belajar sosial (Social Learning Theory) yang diperkenalkan Bandura menekankan bahwa meniru atau meneladani perilaku orang lain merupakan salah satu bentuk internal consequence.
Baik Skinner maupun Bandura sama-sama menerapkan Behaviour Modification (Modifikasi Perilaku) sebagai cara mengubah perilaku seseorang oleh eksternal control (counselor), dan mengaitkannya dengan hal-hal yang menyebabkan perilaku terjadi.

  1. Intrapsikis
Mazhab intrapsikis mengedepankan pada proses internal dalam diri individu (process of internal control). Beberapa tokoh yang termasuk dalam mazhab ini diantaranya adalah:
a.       Sigmund Freud
Freud memandang pengalaman masa kecil (childhood experience) mempengaruhi perilaku seseorang.
b.       Carl Gustaf Jung
Menurut Jung, bukan masa lalu yang mempengaruhi perilaku, melainkan masa depan. Jung membagi ketidaksadaran ke dalam kesadaran individual dan kesadaran kolektif (collective unconscious).
c.        Alfred Adler
Adler mengemukakan bahwa over compensation adalah perilaku orang yang mengatasi rasa minder dengan sesuatu yang berlebihan. Menurut Adler, rasa minder dapat dikompensasi (diseimbangkan) dengan dua cara, yaitu kompensasi yang bersifat real dan semu. Kompensasi real misalnya adalah mengembangkan potensi lain yang dimiliki individu yang merasa minder. Misalnya seorang anak yang secara akademis/ intelegensi kurang baik, tetapi memiliki prestasi di bidang olah raga. Kompensasi semu misalnya kenakalan yang ditunjukkan seorang anak yang kurang pandai, karena perasaan mindernya.
d.       Karen Horney
Tokoh yang muncul pada abad ke-20 ini berpendapat bahwa perilaku manusia dipengaruhi oleh interaksi dengan individu lain (hubungan interpersonal). Pendapat ini dipengaruhi oleh seorang filsuf, Martin Buber yang berpendapat bahwa “manusia adalah manusia karena ada manusia lain yang mengelilinginya”.
e.       Sullivan
Menurut Sullivan, perilaku dipengaruhi oleh pengalaman social dan budaya (social and cultural experience) dari seorang individu.

  1. Humanisme
Mazhab humanisme dapat dikategorikan sebagai mazhab yang relatif baru. Dalam arti, mazhab ini memandang manusia sebagai satu kesatuan yang terdiri dari berbagai unsur yang bersinergi.
Beberapa tokoh yang termasuk dalam mazhab ini antara lain:
a.       Carl Rogers
Tokoh yang sangat terkenal dalam dunia bimbingan dan konseling ini percaya bahwa baik faktor genetik dan lingkungan sama-sama memiliki pengaruh dalam pembentukan perilaku manusia. Rogers dengan metode EKLEKTIKnya, mencoba menengahi pandangan dari mazhab behaviourisme (directive) dan intrapsikis (non directive).
b.       Abraham Maslow
c.        Gardner
Perhatiannya terhadap aspek kecerdasan manusia memberikan pandangan akan kecerdasan jamak (multiple intellegencies) yang dimiliki individu.